Visa and Mastercard are duopolists riding the death of cash. Their payments networks are too wide for entrants to replicate, giving high margins, pricing power, strong cash flow and high-return reinvestment; they fight smaller peers, not each other, so in a growing market each slice keeps getting bigger. The market underpays persistent quality: in arvy's Swiss study of 2000-2025, sorting on five-year average ROIC earned a 7.16% annual premium, while one year of ROIC proved insignificant. x.com x.com x.com x.com x.com x.comÂ





